### Objective Learner should become acquainted with the theory behind learning and memory and understand how to manage a student's learning progression. ### Resources - [[CFI ACS]] Section FI.I.B - [[AIH Ch3]] ### Builds On None ### Schedule Ground 0.5 hr ### Lesson Elements #### Learning 1. [[Learning]]; An effective instructor should: 1. Understand: The Subject, The Learner, The Learning Process and the relationships between them 2. Realizing learning is a complex process 3. Assist each learner in reaching their goal while building self-esteem & confidence 2. [[Learning Theory]] 1. [[Behaviorism]] 2. [[Cognitive Theory]] 1. Information Processing Theory 1. Models human learning with a computer system; The human brain process incoming information, stores and retrieves it and generates responses to the information. 2. Similar to a computer system gets bombarded by inputs may opt to throw away some inputs, human brains also deals with a lot of senses and it let many *habitual and routine things* go unnoticed. 3. > [!example] Example of Subconscious Actions > A pilot using rudder when entering a turn is usually unaware of pressing the pedal. 2. Constructivism 1. Learners do not acquire knowledge and skills passively but actively build them based on their experiences. 1. Humans construct a unique mental image by combining preexisting information with the information received from sense organs. 2. [[ADM|Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)]] 1. A common thread in aviation accidents is the absence of ADM. 2. It is taught similarly to other cognitive skills: from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. > [!tips] [[Scenario-Based Training]] > HOTS or ADMs should be taught with Scenario-Based Training (SBT). SBT is a training system that uses a structured script of "real-world" scenarios to address flight-training objectives. > > It should be adapted to the specific aircraft, characteristic and environment. It should require the learner to make real-time decisions in a realistic setting. It draws learners to formulate possible solutions, evaluate it, decides on one, judging the appropriateness of the decision and finally, reflecting on the mental process -- effectively practicing the ADM process. #### Perceptions 1. Initially, all learning comes from perceptions which are directed to the brain by one of more of the five senses. 1. Most learning occurs through *sight* but learning occurs most rapidly when information is received through multiple senses. 2. New learner may focus on meaningless senses. It is the instructor's job to direct their perceptions to the relevant bits. 3. Factors: 1. Physical Organization 1. Pilots need to see, hear, feel and respond while they are in the air 2. Goals and Values 1. Every experience and sensation is colored by one's own beliefs and value structures. 1. Understand learner's value and tailors teaching to it 3. Self-Concept 1. A positive self-image (confidence) allow learners to be open to new experience 4. Time and Opportunity 1. Proper sequence and time is needed to learn 5. Element of Threat 1. Learning cannot be made under threats; Attention will be fixated to the threats. #### Insight 1. Insight is the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. It is one of the instructor's major responsibilities. 2. Insight almost always occurs eventually: by trial-and-error or just memorizing and comprehension. The instructor's job is to speed up the process and promoting the development of insights. 3. Insights are what makes the learning clicks and become more permanent. #### Acquiring Knowledge 1. Three phases of knowledge: 1. Memorization 1. Get started quickly but not useful for solving problem 2. Understanding 1. Known facts is organized into coherent groups to understand how things or processes work. 2. Advantages: 1. Not limited to answer questions that match the memorized facts 2. Can master variations of the process 3. More efficient communication 4. Can remember it easier or reconstruct later if forgotten 3. Concept Learning 1. Grouping things into shared attributes (ex. aircrafts into airplanes, helicopters, etc.) 2. Enhances understanding during the formation process 3. Schema: Forming a cognitive framework that helps people organize and interpret information 1. Human forms schemas when we notice recurring patterns in frequently observed / done things (ex. CRAFT for IFR clearance) 2. Cons: If the new information does not fall into the established schema, it will be harder to retain. #### [[Laws of Learning]] ![[Laws of Learning]] #### [[Domains of Learning]] 1. [[Domains of Learning]] 2. Summary of Instructor Actions 1. Ask learners to recite or practice newly acquired knowledge 2. Ask questions that probe learner understanding and prompt them to think about what they have learned in different ways 3. Present opportunities for learners to apply what they know to solving problems or making decisions 4. Present learners with problems and decisions that test the limits of their knowledge 5. Demonstrate thee benefits of understanding and being able to apply knowledge 6. Introduce new topics as they support the objectives of the lesson, whenever possible #### Characteristics of Learning 1. Purposeful 1. The learner's goals are the most important factor 2. Result of Experience 1. Learning is an individual process. Instructors are there to provide learning experiences that are meaningful, varied, and appropriate to individual learners. 3. Multifaceted 1. Learners can learn more if they fully exercise their minds and senses. Aviation training is not just about memory and muscles. 4. Active Process 1. Don't assume a learner remembers something just because they were present. 2. For effective knowledge transfer, learners needs to react and respond. #### Learning Styles 1. Different approaches or ways of learning based on the fact that people absorb and process information in different ways. 2. The scientific value of styles is controversial but it is helpful for instructors to adapt materials for learners. 3. Left / Right Brain 1. Most people have a dominant side / preference, some do use both. 2. Left brain: Verbal instruction, step-by-step in writing, planned and structured 1. Serialistic-style learning 3. Right brain: Demonstration, general concepts, emotional 1. Holistic-style learning 4. Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic Learners 1. Group learners into the preferred sensory receptors used for learning 5. Superlinks 1. Combining left/right brain and VAKT (tactile) learners, groups into: left-brain visual, right-brain visual, ... etc. 6. The takeaway point is that finding out your student's style and adapt your teaching to it can increase the effectiveness of the instruction. #### Acquiring Skill Knowledge 1. Skill knowledge is the knowledge reflected in motor or manual skills and in cognitive or mental skills, that manifests itself in the doing of something. (e.g. Flying an airplane, riding a motorcycle, etc.) 1. Specifically different from "declarative knowledge" because the learner usually does not consciously aware of it or able to articulate the skill. 2. Stages of Acquisition 1. Cognitive (Memorizing what needs to happen) 2. Associative (Consistent practice to retain the skill) 3. Automatic Response (Less attention needed to perform and the learner is afford to multitask) 3. Knowledge of Results 1. In a complex skills (ex. aircraft maintenance, flight maneuvers, etc.), a learner may know something is wrong but is unable to correct it. Instructors can be the helpful, if not critically required, source of providing feedback on their progress. 2. It should be given as soon as possible after their performance; a.k.a. It is more difficult to unlearn a mistake. 4. Learning Plateaus 1. It can be many things: the learner reached their capability limit, interest waned, or they need a more efficient way to progress. 2. The apparent lack of increasing proficiency does not necessarily mean plateau. However, a plateau is normal and expected after an initial period of rapid improvement. 3. Instructor should prepare the learner for the inevitable and prevent them from over-practicing and giving the current task a break. #### Types of Practice 1. Deliberate Practice 1. Learner practice for a particular goal and receives specific feedback after so. The feedback focuses on the discrepancies between the actual and sought performance and learners should focus on eliminating the differences. 2. Blocked Practice 1. Practicing the same drill until it enters the automatic stage. 2. This type of practice while useful and can enhance current performance, it can have poor effect on long-term learning if overused. 3. Random Practice 1. Mixes up the skills required throughout the practice session. 2. It leads to better retention especially if the instructor uses a well-written [[Scenario-Based Training]]. #### Evaluation v.s. Critique 1. Practical suggestions are more valuable than a grade in the initial stages of skill acquisition. 2. Overlearning of Knowledge 1. It is the continued study of a skill after initial proficiency is established. 2. While it can make application of knowledge more streamlined and efficient, it has some downsides too: 1. Can cause the response to be automatic, such as checklist being run through without actually checked 2. It can impede further learning or lead to forgetting general knowledge: such as calculating W&B for a specific airplane over and over can lead to learners forget about the general concepts of W&B and starts to rely on their experience to know the limit which only apply to that specific airplane. 3. Application of Skill 1. The final and critical question: "Can the learner use the information received?" 2. Learner needs to be able to understand the skill so it becomes easy even habitual, and they need to recognize when is appropriate to use the skill. #### Putting It All Together 1. Multitasking: 1. It is often for granted to mean handling several tasks at the same time but it's generally impossible to do so. 2. Increased workload beyond one's capability will lead to [[task saturation]] which causes the quality of work to diminish. 3. Each skills should be studied and practiced in isolation to a reasonably well level before attempting to combine them. 2. Distraction: Unexpected event that cause the learner's attention to be momentarily diverted. 1. Students needs to learn / decide if one warrants further attention / action 3. Interruption: Unexpected event where the learner voluntarily suspends one task to complete another one 1. This is a significant source of error and learners needs to develop procedures for dealing with them. > [!example] Interruption during Preflight > One common error is for the pilot to be interrupted during preflight, they were checking on one thing and the instructor called out to them or their phone rang. The pilot tend to forget where they were in the checklist and thus missed things. > A solution would be to always restart the section of checklist if you were being interrupted. 4. Fixation: Occurs when one becomes absorbed in one task to the exclusion of other tasks 1. Often a sign that the task has not been mastered well enough to be performed in addition to other tasks 5. Inattention: Occurs when one fails to pay attention to a task that is important 1. Could be a natural byproduct of fixation 2. Could happen if one is not busy (bored) 3. Alert the learner to the problem and help them develop habit that keep their attention focused 6. Identify Fixation or Inattention 1. Try and follow where the learners look (Glance the learner's eyes) #### Errors 1. The biggest error is to believe people can eliminate errors from their performance. 2. Slip: 1. A person plans to do one thing but inadvertently does something else. (ex. Neglect to do something, confuse similar things.) 2. Common source: Asked to do a routine procedure in a slightly different way (ex. runway change), Under time pressure 3. Mistake: 1. A person plans to do the wrong thing and succeeds. 2. It is an error of though, may be caused by gap or misconception in understanding. 4. Reducing Error 1. Learning and practicing (ex. Chair flying) 2. Slow down 3. Checking for Errors (Look for evidence of errors) 4. Reminders (Checklist, navlogs, etc.) 5. Developing Routines (Checklist, SOP, etc.) 6. Raising Awareness 5. Error Recovery 1. Error is inevitable so we must learn to recover from it. Solve it and move on. [[Be A Goldfish]] or [[Be Like Elsa]]. 6. Learning from Error 1. Learn from errors: Understand why it happened and what could be done differently. 2. Hindsight is always 20/20, don't try to explain away errors. #### Memory 1. Sensory (Precoding) → Working / Short-Term Memory → Long-Term Memory 2. Sensory Memory 1. Receives initial stimuli and process them according to one's preconceived concept of what is important 1. Things impacting multiple senses is more likely to make an impression 2. This memory is very short lived (few seconds) and relevant information is passed to the Short-Term Memory. 3. Short-Term Memory (STM) 1. Information is stored for roughly 30 seconds, after which it'll rapidly fade or be consolidated into Long-Term Memory. It is also capacity limited (roughly 7 bits / chunk of information.) 2. This is where learning starts to take place. 3. Repetition (extend the time limit) and sorting / categorization helps with retention (called coding or chunking). 1. This process takes 5 ~ 10 seconds usually so if it is interrupted, the data is easily lost since it will be lost after 30 seconds. 4. Three basic operations: 1. Iconic Memory: Brief sensory memory of visual images 2. Acoustic memory: Encoded memory of brief sound memory (or hold sounds in STM); This tends to be held longer than visual. 3. Working Memory: Active process to keep information until it is put to use. 4. Long-Term Memory (LTM) 1. Relatively permanent storage of unlimited information 2. For the stored information to be useful, some special effort is needed during encoding or consolidation in STM. 1. Recall might be impossible or distorted if not encoded properly. 2. Recall is a reconstruction and is subject to one's biases and inaccuracies. 5. Remembering & Forgetting 1. The more recent and more frequently knowledge is used, the easier it is to be recalled. 2. Forgetting: Many theories on why people forget 1. Retrieval Failure: Information not encoded well and lost to LTM. 2. Fading: Information not used for extended period of time 3. Interference: Information overshadowed by similar things or other things 4. Repression or Suppression: Memory that is pushed out of reach due to psychological reason. #### [[Retention of Learning]] ![[Retention of Learning]] #### Transfer of Learning 1. It is the ability to apply knowledge of procedures learned in one context to new contexts. 2. Suggestions for promoting positive transfer: 1. Plan for transfer as a primary objective 2. Ensure that the learners understand that information can be applied to other situations 3. Maintain high-order learning standards 4. Avoid unnecessary rote learning 5. Provide meaningful learning experiences that build confidence in their ability to transfer knowledge 6. Use material that helps form valid concepts and generalizations 3. Habit Formation 1. Instructor should insist on correct techniques / procedures to provide proper habit patterns (primacy) 2. Training traditionally has followed a building block concept (Start with basics and build up) 4. Understanding 1. The ability to remember is greatly affected by the level of understanding of learnt. 5. Remembering 1. During Training 1. Threat: Lack of frequent usage 1. The learner needs to engage in short, regularly spaced practice. 2. Threat: Lack a degree of understanding that may assist with recalling the knowledge 1. Study questions, repetitions and even creating new study questions helps 3. After Training 1. Continued practice of their knowledge and skill is the only means of retaining what they learned 2. Instructors are not exempted from this: One study shows learners' retention on some topics was superior to their instructor due to their active usage and rehearsal 3. Even automatic skills can become un-automatic after a period of inactivity 6. Source of Knowledge 1. Instructors should be the primary source 2. Other common sources: books, videos, etc. 3. Learners should be encouraged to seek out experience in real-world aviation ### Completion Standards None ### Required Logbook Phraseology None ### Required Homework None ### Recommended Homework None *Return to [[~ CFI Lesson Plan|Table of Contents]]^*